A Punggol student admitted through Posting Group 2 (PG2) can understand G2 Science ecosystems by learning how organisms interact with one another and with non-living conditions such as light, water, temperature and soil. PG2 is the Secondary 1 admission group, while G2 Science is an individual subject level under Full Subject-Based Banding. In this topic the student should be able to distinguish an organism from a population and community, interpret a food chain or food web, trace the direction of energy transfer and explain how changes to one part of a system may affect other organisms.

MOE’s lower-secondary G2/G3 Science syllabus includes interactions within ecosystems, predator–prey relationships, mutualism, parasitism, adaptations and human effects on biodiversity. A Punggol Waterway walk can inspire sensible questions about planted greenery, water and habitats, but photographs do not establish what species live there or whether the water is clean. Families at Edgefield, Greendale, Punggol Secondary and Yusof Ishak Secondary should use their actual Science notes, reliable NParks or PUB material and teacher-approved observations. This guide offers fictional food-web models and safe desk-based reasoning so children learn ecological principles without disturbing wildlife, collecting specimens or claiming a real species identification from a blurry image.

• PG2 versus G2: posting group and subject level are different classifications.
• Ecosystem: interacting living communities and their non-living physical environment.
• Levels: distinguish organism, population, community, habitat and ecosystem.
• Food chains: arrows show the direction of energy transfer from food to consumer.
• Food webs: multiple feeding relationships connect organisms into a system.
• Relationships: consider predation, competition, mutualism and parasitism with appropriate evidence.
• Abiotic factors: light, water, temperature, air, minerals and other physical conditions matter.
• Conservation: understand biodiversity and evaluate human impacts without inventing ecological measurements.
• Next step: interpret one clearly hypothetical web and explain an ecological change with an evidence-based limit.

Definition lock: ecosystems are a Science idea, not a posting-group label

Posting Group 2 is used in Singapore’s Secondary 1 admission system. G2 Science refers to the curriculum level of the actual Science subject. A teenager may have different subject levels across the timetable under Full Subject-Based Banding. The posting group itself does not decide whether the child can identify a producer, explain a food web or reason about environmental change. Parents should check the assigned school’s current syllabus and the particular topic the learner has reached.

Ecological reasoning involves a different kind of thinking from simply memorising names of animals. Students must trace relationships: an organism obtains energy or resources from its environment, interacts with other organisms and may be affected by changes in water, temperature or habitat. A child’s answer should explain the connection rather than list facts. If the student cannot follow the relationship, adding more species names will not fix the missing concept. The goal is to build a coherent mental model.

What is an ecosystem?

An ecosystem consists of a community of living organisms interacting with one another and with their physical environment. Plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms are biotic components. Water, sunlight, temperature, air and mineral conditions are among abiotic components. A system can be studied at different spatial scales, but the definition concerns the interaction, not just a picturesque location. A park containing trees does not automatically tell the student which species or processes occur there.

Ask the teenager to describe both kinds of components in a clearly hypothetical model. A pond might have producers, consumers, decomposers, water, minerals and light. Then ask what relationships connect them. The ecosystem is not simply the list of organisms. It includes feeding, competition, resource use and responses to physical conditions. Once the student can explain those links, the meaning of the term becomes easier to remember.

Organism, population and community are different levels

An organism is one living individual. A population refers to individuals of the same species in a defined area, while a community comprises populations of different species living and interacting there. An ecosystem includes the community and its non-living environment. Students sometimes confuse these levels and refer to a whole community as though it were one population. The correction is to ask which species and which boundary are being described.

For an entirely fictional diagram, one snail is an organism, several snails of the same species in a defined pond are a population, and the snails together with aquatic plants and insects form parts of a community. Water temperature and dissolved conditions become relevant when considering the ecosystem. This example is not a survey of Punggol Waterway; its organisms are illustrative. Clear levels help students interpret later questions about population changes.

Habitat is not identical to ecosystem

A habitat is the place or environment in which an organism lives, while an ecosystem emphasises interactions among communities and physical factors. One ecosystem can contain different microhabitats, and a species may use several types of habitat across its life cycle. Students should avoid treating habitat, niche and ecosystem as interchangeable words. The school’s current level determines how deeply these ideas are explored.

Ask the learner what a hypothetical freshwater organism needs from its surroundings. Food, shelter, suitable temperature and water conditions may all matter. A habitat description may identify where those requirements are met. The ecosystem explanation goes further, examining the organism’s relationships with other species and physical conditions. Vocabulary becomes useful when each term answers a distinct question.

Biotic and abiotic factors work together

Living and non-living factors influence one another. The amount of available light can influence photosynthesis in green plants, which in turn contributes energy-rich food to a system. Water availability and temperature can affect survival and activity. Interactions among organisms can change competition or feeding opportunities. A student should learn to describe how a physical factor can affect a biological process without claiming every effect is simple or identical across all species.

A fictional classroom task might compare two diagrams of the same model habitat under different light conditions. The learner can predict how photosynthesis might be influenced, while acknowledging that the actual result also depends on other factors. A prediction is not a measured observation. Science requires the student to know whether they are describing supplied data, applying a model or reporting a real experiment.

Producers introduce energy into food chains

Most familiar food chains begin with producers such as green plants or algae that can use light energy to make organic substances through photosynthesis. Consumers obtain energy by feeding on other organisms or their products. Students should not say that green plants ‘eat sunlight’ in the same way an animal eats food. Photosynthesis uses energy from light in chemical processes that build organic molecules.

Consider a fictional chain: grass → grasshopper → small bird. It represents the grasshopper obtaining food from grass and the bird feeding on the grasshopper. The example describes a simplified feeding relationship, not a confirmed local Punggol species interaction. The student should state what each arrow means and why producers matter. The relationship between sunlight, photosynthesis and chemical energy is the conceptual foundation.

An arrow shows energy transfer, not who is attacking whom

One of the most frequent food-chain mistakes is reversing an arrow because students imagine it should point from predator to prey. In a food chain, arrows indicate the direction of energy transfer, so they point from the organism being consumed towards the organism obtaining energy from it. Grass → rabbit is an elementary example of energy transfer from the plant to the herbivore under the stated model.

Ask the learner to read the chain aloud as ‘is eaten by’, not as ‘eats’. Then explain that the arrow represents energy moving with the food. A diagram can be redrawn using different organisms to test whether the child understands the convention. If they automatically reverse the arrows in a new example, the underlying meaning needs more teaching. Correct direction matters because it influences every later conclusion about how one population’s change affects another.

Primary, secondary and later consumers

A primary consumer feeds on a producer in the simplified chain. A secondary consumer may feed on a primary consumer. The names depend on the particular feeding relationship, so a species appearing at more than one position in a complex web can complicate rigid labels. Students should not infer a whole organism’s complete diet from a single illustrative arrow. School diagrams simplify relationships to teach key ideas.

For the hypothetical grass → grasshopper → bird sequence, the grasshopper acts as primary consumer and the bird as secondary consumer in that chain. Ask what would change if the bird also ate seeds. The species may participate in more than one feeding pathway. This question prepares the learner to understand food webs instead of treating every ecosystem as a single straight line.

Food webs are networks rather than neat ladders

A real community may contain many feeding relationships. A food web combines several food chains to show how energy can pass through different organisms. One insect may be eaten by several predators, while one predator may eat more than one kind of prey. The web is therefore more complex than a simple line of three names. Students should read each arrow separately before attempting a general explanation.

Imagine a fictional web in which a small bird feeds on insects and seeds, while a lizard also feeds on insects. The bird and lizard share one possible food source but are not necessarily identical in their needs. Ask what happens to different organisms if that insect population declines. The answer may involve more than one possible outcome and should be qualified. The food web is a model, not a guarantee that every arrow depicts an observed event.

Changes can create indirect effects

If a prey population decreases, predators that rely heavily on it may have less food. At the same time, other prey species may experience different predation pressures, and competitors may be affected. The precise consequences depend on how strongly organisms depend on each food source, how quickly populations respond and what other environmental conditions are operating. A food-web diagram can suggest pathways, but it rarely determines exact population numbers without more data.

Teach the child to trace one link at a time. Which organism loses a food source? Which may face reduced predation? Are alternative sources available? Then state an appropriately limited prediction. A weak answer confidently declares that every predator will disappear. A stronger answer says the population could decline if the lost food is important and no adequate alternatives exist. Scientific conditional language is a strength.

Predator–prey relationships can affect population balance

Predators feed on prey, and the availability of prey can influence predator survival and reproduction. Predation can also affect prey populations, which may influence other organisms. But population changes are not governed by predation alone; habitat, disease, climate and food availability matter. Students should avoid assuming that any increase in predators causes an immediate fixed numerical decrease in prey.

A hypothetical classroom graph could show varying counts over several time points. The learner should first describe the observed pattern and then consider possible relationships. Correlation alone does not establish an exact cause. A sound Science answer may explain the expected ecological mechanism while acknowledging that other data would be needed to confirm it. The goal is to think in systems rather than memorise ‘predator up, prey down’ as a universal formula.

Competition is about shared limited resources

Organisms may compete for food, light, water, space or other resources when access is limited. Competition can occur within a species or between different species. The concept should be linked to the actual resource in question. A student who says two trees ‘compete’ should explain whether they may be using overlapping light, water or mineral resources, not imply the trees consciously dislike each other.

In a hypothetical garden diagram, plants growing close together may have overlapping resource needs. The exact outcome depends on their species, size and local conditions. Ask the learner to identify the limited factor and explain a plausible consequence. Avoid claiming which plant must die without evidence. Competition is a relationship that can influence survival and growth, but its effects need careful observation and contextual knowledge.

Mutualism is a relationship with benefits to both

Mutualism refers to an interaction in which both participating organisms benefit. Many biology examples involve species exchanging resources or services, but the precise relationship should be verified and described accurately. Students should not assume that every organism seen near another has a mutualistic relationship. Sharing a location is not proof of mutual benefit.

Use a textbook-approved example and ask what each organism gains. If the pupil can explain only one benefit, the relationship may not have been understood. A diagram can help identify the reciprocal effects. The word becomes meaningful through a clear mechanism rather than a memorised slogan. When discussing local wildlife, use reliable species information and avoid presenting an invented interaction as a verified observation at Punggol.

Parasitism and mutualism should not be confused

Parasitism describes a relationship in which one organism benefits while the host is harmed. This is different from mutualism, in which both benefit. Students may incorrectly classify any close physical association as one or the other. Ask who gains, who is harmed and what evidence supports that account. The relationship may involve processes that are not obvious from an ordinary photograph.

For home practice, use a simplified textbook explanation with named roles rather than invent local parasites or assume that an organism visible on another animal is necessarily parasitic. The concept concerns effects, not appearance alone. Correct classification helps the learner compare interrelationships and evaluate how changes in one population could matter to others in a community.

Decomposers connect living systems with nutrient cycling

Decomposers help break down dead organic material and return nutrients to the environment through ecological processes. Fungi and many microorganisms can serve such roles in appropriate contexts. Students sometimes describe decomposers as animals that simply eat leftovers, overlooking nutrient cycling. The precise mechanisms and depth should follow the assigned syllabus; the MOE lower-secondary document marks some decomposer outcomes as optional for G2.

A useful explanation distinguishes energy transfer from nutrient recycling. Energy enters food chains and moves through feeding relationships, while materials such as mineral nutrients can be reused through biological and environmental processes. Do not tell the child that energy itself cycles in the same way nutrients do. This conceptual separation is important when the student begins linking food webs, decomposition and the environment.

Energy flow is not the same as a nutrient cycle

Energy from light can be captured by producers and transferred through feeding, with energy also lost to surroundings through processes such as respiration and heat transfer. Nutrients, on the other hand, can circulate through organisms and their physical environment. Students may draw arrows in both kinds of diagrams and mistakenly assume the arrows describe the same substance or process. Ask what each arrow represents before interpreting the model.

A food-web arrow generally indicates energy transfer through feeding. A nutrient-cycle diagram may show materials moving through different environmental reservoirs. The difference explains why ecosystem diagrams cannot be memorised as interchangeable patterns. A student who can tell which quantity is moving has a stronger foundation for later biology and environmental science.

Photosynthesis and respiration play distinct roles

Photosynthesis allows suitable organisms to use light energy to produce organic compounds from appropriate raw materials. Cellular respiration releases usable energy from organic substances for life processes. Plants perform respiration as well as photosynthesis. Students sometimes think plants only photosynthesise and animals only respire, which is incorrect. Different processes may occur within the same plant under different conditions.

Ask the child to explain how a producer forms food and how organisms use that food. Do not reduce both processes to one slogan about oxygen. A teacher-approved diagram can help show their roles in ecosystems. The key is causal understanding: sunlight provides an energy input to photosynthetic production, while respiration supports living processes. These ideas help explain why food webs connect organisms that depend on energy-containing materials.

Adaptations help explain survival under particular conditions

Structural and behavioural traits can affect how organisms obtain resources, avoid hazards and reproduce in particular environments. A feature that helps in one habitat may be less useful under different conditions. Students should avoid claims that an organism deliberately develops a trait because it wishes to survive. Biological adaptation has an evolutionary meaning that should be explained at the level appropriate to the school syllabus.

A fictional question might ask why a plant with a broad leaf surface could benefit in a certain light environment, while noting that actual success depends on many other factors. The learner should connect the trait to a plausible function and identify the environmental context. A photograph alone may not establish whether the trait is truly adaptive. Use verified textbook or scientific sources for real species-specific examples.

Abiotic changes can affect several organisms at once

A change in temperature, rainfall, light availability or water conditions can influence multiple populations. Some organisms may tolerate the change better than others. The student should not assume all species respond identically. A food web provides one part of the picture, while the physical environment provides another. Ecosystem explanations need both.

Imagine a hypothetical pond model in which reduced light changes the ability of certain producers to photosynthesise. A student can predict potential downstream effects on dependent consumers, while acknowledging that magnitude and timing cannot be determined from the diagram alone. The task is to construct a reasonable mechanism and identify the evidence needed. It is not to invent measured environmental conditions for Punggol.

Biodiversity includes more than the number of birds visible

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life at different levels, including variation among species and within ecosystems. A quick photograph showing three birds cannot establish the biodiversity of an entire park. Species identification, observation effort, habitat coverage and seasonal conditions all matter in a valid assessment. Students should avoid confusing visual abundance with species richness or ecological health.

A class can practise the idea using fictional categories and explain why the count of individuals differs from the count of species. Ten organisms of one species do not represent the same species richness as ten organisms belonging to ten different species. Further diversity measures may require more advanced methods. The important lower-secondary habit is to describe exactly what has been counted and what conclusions are justified.

Why conservation matters

Conservation aims to protect living organisms, habitats and ecological processes, often through management of human impacts and natural systems. Students should explain a specific reason for protecting biodiversity rather than write only that nature is beautiful. Organisms contribute to interdependent systems, and changes may affect the stability and functioning of those systems. The precise benefits and trade-offs need appropriate evidence.

Ask which threat is under discussion and what action addresses it. Habitat loss, pollution and irresponsible disturbance are different problems, and their solutions are not identical. A genuine proposal should respect local regulations and the role of responsible agencies. Conservation is strongest as evidence-based stewardship, not as a slogan that one simple action solves all environmental challenges.

Human actions can help or harm ecosystems

Land development, waste disposal, landscape maintenance, transport and conservation management may influence habitats in different ways. A student should distinguish a particular action from its measured outcome. For example, planting vegetation may create potential habitat, but a photograph of new planting alone cannot prove that local biodiversity increased. A claim about water filtration needs evidence of actual performance under stated conditions.

A useful enquiry asks what the intended effect is, which physical or biological process could produce it and how the outcome might be checked. This makes evaluation more rigorous. It is appropriate to discuss documented Punggol environmental projects with official sources while avoiding unsupported claims about exact species counts, pollutant reductions or current water quality. Good Science respects both the purpose and the limitations of evidence.

Punggol Waterway as an observation prompt, not proof of a food web

Punggol Waterway Park contains landscaped paths, planted areas and a visible water environment. These features can motivate questions about producers, physical factors and habitat design. However, a photograph of the waterway does not identify its full ecological community. It cannot show microscopic organisms, reliably determine food-web relationships or establish water chemistry. Students should use the park as a familiar setting for asking questions rather than fabricate a completed field study.

A family can discuss what kinds of evidence would be needed to establish a relationship. Species identification requires reliable observation or a suitable source; a predator–prey claim requires evidence of feeding; water-quality statements need appropriate testing or published results. A student who knows what is missing is thinking scientifically. Familiarity with a place is a beginning, not the conclusion.

Read official habitat information before naming species

NParks and other relevant Singapore agencies publish material about parks, wildlife and appropriate conduct. Use those resources to verify an actual species claim instead of guessing from a distant image or copying a social-media caption. Even a correct general species name does not prove that the individual pictured belongs to that species when the image is unclear. Scientific identification should be cautious.

When a student cannot identify an organism confidently, ‘unidentified bird’ or ‘green plant’ may be the more honest description until better evidence is available. Then the learner can explain the ecological role only at the level justified by the information. Do not turn every outdoor sighting into a claim of endangered wildlife. Accurate uncertainty protects the student’s reasoning and the credibility of the article or project.

A food chain drawn for teaching should be labelled fictional

An invented chain using grass, an insect and a small bird may be appropriate for explaining energy transfer. But without field evidence it should not be presented as a documented feeding relationship at Punggol Waterway Park. An illustrated food web can teach arrows and dependencies while remaining explicitly hypothetical. The educational task is to understand the model, not to manufacture the appearance of local scientific discovery.

Ask the teenager to add a short caption saying ‘simplified illustrative food chain’. Then have them explain what the arrows mean and which assumptions are being made. If the question later concerns a real organism, consult a trustworthy source before applying the model. This distinction between explanatory examples and observed evidence is important across Science, Mathematics and Humanities.

School fieldwork requires permission and supervision

Students should not collect water samples, remove plants, catch insects, disturb nests or enter restricted areas because a worksheet mentions ecosystems. The assigned school determines any approved investigative method and safety arrangements. Family visits should follow NParks rules, stay on permitted paths and avoid approaching or feeding wildlife. Taking close photographs of strangers or gathering identifiable personal information is unnecessary for elementary ecological learning.

A safer approach is desk-based analysis of permitted photographs, teaching diagrams and trusted published information. If a teacher approves an observation activity, follow the specified supervision and data-recording process. No school grade justifies harming an organism or taking unsafe risks near water. Scientific curiosity is compatible with restraint and responsible conduct.

What can be learned from one park photograph?

A clear photograph can show visible vegetation, built features, water surfaces, relative positions and certain conditions at the moment it was taken. It may not establish species identity, hidden food webs, water quality or trends over time. A learner should separate observation from interpretation in two columns. ‘Several patches of vegetation are visible’ may be supportable, while ‘the habitat is healthy because there are many birds’ requires evidence not necessarily provided.

A parent can ask what additional data would be needed for each proposed claim. Perhaps a dated ecological survey, official habitat description or repeated observations under proper methods would help. This teaches how Science advances from curiosity towards evidence. A narrow observation accurately described is more valuable than a sweeping conclusion built on guesswork.

Climate change adds another layer of interaction

Changes in climate can affect temperatures, rainfall patterns, habitats and the conditions organisms face. The lower-secondary Science syllabus asks students to consider impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity. But the effect on any particular species or local site requires relevant evidence; a hot afternoon at Punggol cannot be treated as proof of a long-term ecological trend. Weather and climate refer to different time scales and kinds of information.

Teach the child to distinguish a single observed event from a pattern established over many observations. A climate explanation should use suitable scientific concepts, and a local prediction should identify its uncertainty. This is the same reasoning applied to food webs: the mechanism can be understood while the precise real-world outcome still requires data. Thoughtful students can care deeply about environmental change without overstating every observation.

A hypothetical ecological change exercise

Imagine an entirely fictional pond food web in which algae provide energy to small aquatic consumers, which are eaten by a larger predator. The teaching question states that the algae population declines sharply. A learner can predict that the small consumers may have less food and that the predator may later be affected, depending on alternative food sources. The answer should explain the pathway rather than jump straight to total extinction.

Ask what further information could change the conclusion. Perhaps another producer supplies energy or the consumers move elsewhere. The student should name the assumptions and avoid precise population predictions from an illustrative diagram. This exercise is designed to teach conditional reasoning; it makes no claim about measured ecology or species at Punggol Waterway.

A second hypothetical exercise about competition

Imagine two fictional plant species growing in the same model habitat and using overlapping soil resources. A change in water availability could influence their growth differently. The task asks which information would be needed to assess competition. Students might propose evidence about water use, root distribution, growth conditions and repeated observations under a suitable approved method, instead of declaring one species superior from appearance.

No real plants need to be manipulated for this exercise. The learner is practising the relationship between a hypothesis and evidence. If a teacher supplies data, the student should describe the actual patterns before explaining them. A plausible biological story is not a replacement for careful measurement. This example reinforces that Science learning is about evaluating ideas, not only remembering named relationships.

A correction routine for food-web arrows

When a student draws an arrow from a predator to its prey, ask what the arrow is intended to show. If it represents energy transfer through feeding, the arrow must point from food source to the organism receiving the energy. Explain the principle using a simple chain, then ask the child to redraw a different one without prompts. If the arrows remain reversed, return to the meaning of the model rather than assigning ten more diagrams without explanation.

A small correction notebook can record the first incorrect reasoning step, the revised concept and a fresh example. Similar attention helps with producer–consumer labels and predictions about population change. Feedback becomes durable when the learner can explain a new web independently. A tutor or parent should not simply supply the right arrows and treat the finished diagram as proof of understanding.

A two-week ecosystem learning sequence

During the first days, distinguish organism, population, community and ecosystem. Then identify biotic and abiotic factors in a simple imaginary habitat. Next, practise producers, consumers and energy-direction arrows with short chains. During the following week, combine chains into webs and discuss predation, competition, mutualism and parasitism. End by evaluating a fictional change in one population and writing one cautious conclusion about its possible effects.

This is an optional teaching sequence, not a guaranteed school timetable. The learner’s actual textbook and teacher instructions take priority, and some outcomes may be optional at G2. Keep sessions short and ask for an independent explanation after each correction. The aim is a coherent ecological model that the teenager can apply to unfamiliar diagrams, not a large collection of memorised species names.

What good ecosystem writing looks like

A strong response states a relationship, uses correct scientific terminology and explains the causal pathway. ‘The bird population will fall because there is less food’ may be too broad if the bird has several other food sources. A more careful answer might say that fewer insects could reduce food availability for certain insect-eating birds, potentially affecting their population if alternatives are insufficient. The conclusion makes its assumption visible.

Ask the student to identify which details came from the diagram and which are scientific reasoning. Avoid adding unsupported absolute claims. Science rewards the ability to connect observations and concepts accurately. The strongest answer often contains one well-explained mechanism and a meaningful qualification rather than several dramatic outcomes presented as certain.

Sources, related guides and your next step

MOE’s Lower Secondary G2/G3 Science Syllabus includes the topic Interactions within Ecosystems and marks some outcomes optional for G2. NParks visitor etiquette provides conduct guidance for safe, respectful visits, while SEAB’s 2027 G2 subject index applies to that graduating examination cohort. Check the actual school’s Science syllabus and projects.

For methods of interpreting experimental information, see the PG2 Science data guide; for supervised practical safety, use the laboratory guide. This article’s focus is ecological relationships. Your next step is to draw one labelled hypothetical food web, ask the child which way energy moves, and then change one population and require a reasoned, appropriately qualified prediction.

Frequently asked questions about PG2 G2 Science ecosystems

Does PG2 automatically fix Science at G2?

No. PG2 refers to admission, while individual subject levels follow Full SBB arrangements and the actual school offer.

What is an ecosystem?

A community of organisms interacting with one another and with the physical environment.

How are habitat and ecosystem different?

Habitat emphasises where an organism lives; ecosystem includes interacting organisms and non-living conditions.

Which direction do food-chain arrows point?

From the food source towards the organism receiving energy through feeding.

Can an organism have more than one role in a food web?

Yes. Food webs can show several feeding pathways, unlike simplified linear food chains.

Are predators the only cause of population change?

No. Resource availability, disease, habitat and environmental conditions can also matter.

Does visible greenery prove biodiversity is high?

No. Biodiversity claims need appropriate species and habitat evidence rather than appearance alone.

Should families collect specimens at Punggol Waterway?

No unauthorised collecting or disturbance. Follow the school’s supervision and park rules.

Can a photo establish local water quality?

No. Water-quality conclusions require suitable measured or published evidence.

What is an effective Science practice task?

Interpret a clearly hypothetical food web, identify a change and explain possible consequences with correct assumptions.

Editorial note: Prepared 1 November 2026. All example species relationships and hypothetical pond models are teaching illustrations, not documented records from Punggol. School-specific lessons and approved fieldwork methods control what students may do. This article does not make measured water-quality or biodiversity claims.